Top 10 Stars That’ll Blow Your Mind

No one can help but look at all the stars which adorn our skies and wonder, “what’s out there?” It’s natural to dream about that which lies so very beyond our reach. Perhaps in a solar system far from ours there’s another species gazing up towards our sun, a mere point of light from their perspective, and wondering what mysteries it holds.

Try as we might, we’ll never truly understand everything there is to know about cosmology, but it doesn’t stop us trying. From the known to the hypothetical, this list will outline ten fascinating types of stars.

10

Hypergiant





A rather boring type of star in comparison to the rest on this list, I couldn’t resist including hypergiants just for their sheer size. It’s hard for us to imagine just how humongous these monsters truly are, but the current largest known star, NML Cygni, has a radius 1,650 times that of our sun – or 7.67 AU. For comparison, the orbit of Jupiter sits 5.23 AU away from our sun, and Saturn is 9.53 AU away. Because of their enormous size, most hypergiants only live for less then a couple of dozen million years at the most, before going supernova. The hypergiant Betelgeuse, which sits in the constellation Orion, is expected to go supernova within the next couple of hundred thousands of years. When it does, it’ll outshine the moon for over a year, as well as being visible during the day. 



9

Hypervelocity Star





Unlike all of the other entries on this list, hypervelocity stars are otherwise normal stars with no interesting or distinguishing features – besides the fact that they are hurtling through space at insane speeds. With a velocity in excess of one or two million miles per hour, hypervelocity stars are the result of stars wandering too close to the galactic centre – which ejects the stars at ultra-high speeds. All known hypervelocity stars in our galaxy are traveling at over twice the escape velocity, and are therefore destined to exit the galaxy all together, and drift in darkness for the rest of their lives.



8

Cepheids



Cepheids – or Cepheid Variable Stars – refers to stars with a mass typically between 5 and 20 times that of our star, which grows larger and smaller at regular intervals, giving it the appearance that it is pulsing. Cepheids expand due to the incredibly high pressure that is experienced within their dense core, but once they have grown in size, the pressure drops and they contract once more. This cycle of growing and shrinking continues until the star reaches the end of its life.



7

Black Dwarf





If a star is too small to become a neutron star or simply explode into a supernova, it will eventually evolve into a white dwarf – an extremely dense and dull star which has expended all of its fuel and is no longer experiencing nuclear fission at its core. Often no larger then the Earth, white dwarves slowly cool via the emission of electromagnetic radiation. Over ridiculously long periods of time, white dwarves eventually cool enough to stop emitting light and heat altogether – thereby becoming what is known as a black dwarf, almost invisible to the observer. Black dwarf-hood marks the end of stellar evolution for many stars. It’s believed that no black dwarves currently exist in the universe, as it takes so long for them to form. Our sun will degenerate into one in around 14.5 billion years.



6

Shell Stars





When most people think of stars, they think of huge sizzling spheres floating in space. In fact, due centrifugal force, most stars are slightly oblate – or flattened at their poles. For most stars this flattening is small enough to be negligible – but in a certain proportion of stars, which spin at ferocious speeds, this flattening is so extreme as to give it a rugby-ball shape. With their high rotational velocities, these stars will also throw out huge volumes of matter around their equator, creating a ‘shell’ of gas around the star – and thereby forming what’s called a ‘shell star’. In the image above, the slightly translucent white mass that circles the oblate star, Alpha Eridan (Achernar), is the ‘shell’.





5

Neutron Star


Once a star has gone supernova, only a neutron star usually remains. Neutron stars are extremely small and extremely dense balls of – you guessed it – neutrons. Many times more dense than the nucleus of an atom, and with a size less than a dozen kilometres in diameter, neutron stars are a truly remarkable product of physics.



Due to the extreme density of neutron stars, any atoms which come into contact with their surface are almost instantaneously ripped apart. All the non-neutron subatomic particles are torn apart, into their constituent quarks, before being ‘rearranged’ into neutrons. This process releases a huge amount of energy – so much so that a collision between a neutron star and an average-sized asteroid would release a gamma ray burst with more energy then our sun will ever produce during its entire lifetime. For this reason alone, any neutron stars in close proximity to our solar system (within a couple of hundred light years) possess a very real threat of blasting the earth with lethal radiation.



4

Dark Energy Star


Because of the many problems associated with our current understanding of black holes, especially in relation to quantum mechanics, many alternate theories have been put forward as an explanation for our observations.

One of these is the idea of a dark energy star. It is hypothesised that when a large star collapses it doesn’t turn into a black hole, but rather the space-time that exists within it mutates into dark energy. Because of quantum mechanics, this star will have a rather unique property: outside its event horizon it will attract all matter, whilst on the inside, beyond its event horizon, it will repel all matter – this is because dark energy has ‘negative’ gravity, which repels all that comes close to it, much like how the identical poles of a magnet reject each other.

In addition to this the theory predicts that once an electron passes the event horizon of a dark energy star it will be converted into a positron – also known as an anti-electron – and ejected. When this antiparticle collides with a normal electron they will annihilate and release a small burst of energy. It is believed that this, on a large scale, would explain the huge amount of radiation that is emitted from the centre of galaxies – where a supermassive black hole is otherwise thought to exist.

For the most part it is easiest to think of a dark energy star as a black hole that ejects matter and has no singularity.



3

Iron Star





Stars create heavier elements via nuclear fusion – the process whereby lighter elements are fused together to make heavier elements, subsequently releasing energy. The heavier the element, the less energy is released when they’re fused. The typical path stars take is by first fusing hydrogen into helium, then helium into carbon, carbon into oxygen, oxygen into neon, neon into silicon and then – finally – silicon into iron. Fusing iron requires more energy than is released, so it’s the last step in any stable nuclear fusion reaction. The majority of stars die before they reach the point where they start fusing carbon, but those who do get to this point, or further, typically erupt into a supernova soon after.



An iron star is a star which is composed purely of iron, but is paradoxically still releasing energy. How? Via quantum tunneling. Quantum tunneling refers to the phenomenon whereby a particle passes through a barrier it would otherwise be unable to transverse. To use an example: if I threw a ball at a wall, it would normally hit the wall and bounce back. But according to quantum mechanics, there is a small chance that the ball could pass through the wall, and hit the unsuspecting person on the other side.

That is quantum tunneling. Of course, the probability of this happening is infinitesimal, but at an atomic level it occurs relatively frequently – especially within huge objects such as stars. Normally, a large amount of energy is required to fuse iron, as it has a barrier of sorts which resists fusion – meaning that it requires more energy than it gives out. With quantum tunneling, however, iron can fuse without using any energy at all. One way of comprehending this is by imagining two golf balls slowly rolling towards each other and spontaneously merging when they collide. Usually this fusion would require a huge amount of energy, but quantum tunneling allows it to occur with practically none. 



Since iron fusion via quantum tunneling is extremely rare, an iron star would need to have an extremely high mass to experience a sustainable fusion reaction. For this reason – and because iron is relatively rare in the universe – it is thought that it will take just under 1 Quingentillion years (1 followed by 1503 zeros) before the first iron stars appear.



2

Quasi-Star

“Twinkle, twinkle quasi-star
Biggest puzzle from afar
How unlike the other ones
Brighter than a billion suns
Twinkle, twinkle, quasi-star
How I wonder what you are.”

– George Gamow, “Quasar” 1964.

Hypergiants – the biggest of stars – typically collapse into black holes around ten times the mass of our sun. So htere’s an obvious question: what could possibly cause the super-massive black holes, located at the centres of galaxies, with masses of a billion suns? No typical star could be large enough to create such a monster! Of course, one could argue that these baby black holes could grow large by consuming matter – but contrary to popular belief, this is an incredibly slow process. Furthermore, the majority of supermassive black holes are believed to have formed in the first couple of billions years of the universe – giving any conventional black hole far too short a time to evolve into the monsters we see today. One theory argues that early population III stars, bigger then today’s hypergiants and composed purely of helium and hydrogen, quickly collapsed and created large black holes, which later merged with each other into supermassive black holes. Another theory, which is considered more likely, suggests that quasi-stars could be to blame.



Back in the first billion years of the universe, there were large clouds of helium and hydrogen floating around. If the matter contained within these clouds collapsed quickly enough, it could form a large star with a small black hole at the centre – a quasi-star, with the brightness of a billion suns. Normally this scenario would lead to a supernova, which would result in the star’s ‘shell’ and surrounding matter being blasted away into space. But if the cloud of matter surrounding the star is large and dense enough, it will withstand the blast and begin to fall into the black hole. Now fed by the huge amount of matter surrounding it, the black hole would grow extremely large, extremely quickly.



To use an analogy: imagine if you had a small bomb surrounded by cardboard. If the bomb exploded, like a supernova, it would blast away the cardboard, and the resulting black hole would have no matter to consume straight away. But if the cardboard was actually thick concrete instead, the blast wouldn’t throw away the wall – and the black hole could immediately consume it.



1

Boson Star





There are two types of things in this universe: bosons and fermions. The simplest distinction between the two is that fermions are particles with a half-integer spin, whilst bosons are particles with an integer spin. All elementary and composite particles, such as electrons, neutrons and quarks, are fermions, whilst the title of boson is granted to all the force-bearing particles, such as photons and gluons. Unlike fermions, two or more bosons can exist in the same state.

To use a convoluted analogy to explain this, fermions are like buildings, whilst bosons are like ghosts. You can only have one building at a particular point in space – as it is impossible to have two building co-existing in the same space – but you can have thousands of ghosts standing in the same spot, or in the building, as they’re immaterial (Bosons do have mass, however, but you get the idea). There is no limit to how many bosons can occupy the same space.



Now, all known stars are composed of fermions, but if a stable boson exists, with some given mass, then hypothetically boson stars could also exist. Bearing in mind that gravity is dependent upon mass, imagine what would happen if there was a type of particle in which an infinite amount could coexist at the same point in space. To use our ghost example, imagine if there were a billion ghosts, all with a small amount of mass, standing in the same place – we’d end up with a huge amount of mass concentrated at a single point in space, which would of course have a huge gravitational pull. Boson stars could thus possess infinite mass at an infinitely small point in space. It is hypothesised that the most likely location for boson stars, if they exist, is at the centre of galaxies.

Top 10 Loneliest Things In The World

Are you sitting alone scrolling through online lists over and over again for entertainment? Spare a thought for the Curiosity rover that has to sing “Happy Birthday” to itself or for poor Lonesome George that spent his golden years surrounded by scientists and lady tortoises that he clearly had no interest in. Here are the loneliest things in the world — from endlings waiting for the end of their species to animals that just can’t communicate with their kin.

10 The Tenere Tree

Photo credit: Michel Mazeau

The Tenere Tree in the Sahara was the only tree for 400 kilometers (250 mi) — a pretty useful landmark in a desert. It stood alone for 300 years and probably sprouted when the desert wasn’t actually a desert at all. But the tree became the lone survivor from its childhood after a well dug in 1938 gave it a steady source of water and nourishment.

Unfortunately, its proud stand against time and loneliness came to an abrupt end when a drunk driver managed to crash into the only obstacle for hundreds of miles. Despite the annoyance, most people are at least a bit impressed by the fact that he managed it. The trunk now lives in the Niger National Museum, with a metal sculpture taking its place in the desert. Hopefully, the next drunk driver will at least avoid the metal tree.

9 52 Blue

52 Blue is the world’s loneliest whale. While most whales vocalize (and hear each other) at a frequency of 10–39 Hz, 52 Blue calls at a frequency of 52 Hz, meaning that no other whales can hear him or even know that he’s there.

Even humans haven’t seen the solitary whale. We’ve only heard his song on navy sonar detectors. It’s never accompanied by another whale call, and other whales won’t hear him even if he’s close to their pod. Although the whale has inspired documentaries, albums, Twitter accounts, and films, he wanders the oceans alone.

8 Toughie The Frog

Photo credit: Brian Gratwicke

Toughie is the last Rabbs’ fringe-limbed tree frog. When he dies, the species will be extinct. But he isn’t gliding through the rain forests of Panama or catching bugs from his favorite leaf. Toughie lives in a gray shipping container called frogPOD in Atlanta’s Botanical Garden.

He does live there with 11 other rare species of frogs, but he’s the only one that’s definitely the last of his kind. The others were probably killed off by a fungal infection that’s killing amphibians around the world, which is why so many are living as endlings in labs instead of wandering the rain forests.

The last female in his species died in 2009. Toughie stopped calling for mates shortly after he was taken into captivity. He never responded to recorded frog calls and must now know that there’s nobody out there for him.

7 Curiosity Rover

Photo credit: NASA

Alone on a planet light-years from home, the Curiosity rover has spent almost four Earth years by itself in space. But that’s okay, right? It’s just a robot and doesn’t actually feel lonely or call for a mate that will never come.

Except on its birthday every year, little Curiosity sings “Happy Birthday” to itself. He’s the loneliest little robot in the known universe. Try not to imagine the scene from WALL-E where he tries to hold hands with himself. That just makes it worse.

6 The Lonely Island Of Hashima

Photo credit: kntrty

About 25 kilometers (15 mi) from Nagasaki, there’s an island that used to be home to over 5,000 people. Even when Hashima was populated, the island saw incredible brutality because conscripted civilians and prisoners of war were forced to work as slave laborers extracting coal from the mines there. But when Japan moved from coal to petroleum, there was no real point to keeping people on the island. So the coal mines closed down, and everyone who worked there moved away.

After many solitary years, Google Street View was allowed to visit the site and take extensive photographs. Since then, the island has been opened up to tourists, but it’s still not home to a single resident. There are no plans to use it as anything other than a World Heritage site and a tourist attraction.

5 The Man Of The Hole

Imagine everyone from your family, friends, and cultural group dying out and leaving you alone in the world. Well, that’s what happened to the Man of the Hole. We know practically nothing about him or the people he used to share his life with.

We only know that he digs holes that are 2 meters (6 ft) deep in little palm houses on his little island in the Amazon rain forest. Researchers think that’s how he hunts. But nobody’s had contact with him or anybody from his tribe, so we can’t be sure.

FUNAI (the Brazilian National Indian Foundation) first investigated the man after rumors surfaced about a lone man living in the forest. Nearby loggers denied sightings, but that could be because they were the ones who bulldozed his village in the first place.

After declaring that he was the survivor of two separate massacres that wiped out his people, FUNAI declared that a 80-square-kilometer (30 mi²) piece of land around him was off-limits to developers. It was traditionally land that he had inhabited and therefore belonged to him as an indigenous person.

Unfortunately, that declaration wasn’t enough to stop gunmen from attacking the Man of the Hole in 2009. Amazingly, he managed to survive the attack and, as far as anybody knows, still lives alone in the forest digging holes.

4 Lonesome George

Photo credit: A. Davey

Lonesome George, the last known Pinta Island tortoise, was around 100 at the time of his death. Instead of living out his golden years in some grace and reflection, he was constantly prodded by zookeepers to mate with females from other subspecies.

That’s no easy feat for any tortoise, never mind one that’s a century old. Unfortunately, even when old George managed, the eggs didn’t hatch and everyone had to start all over again. He was finally released from those duties in 2012, and his remains were prepared through taxidermy for exhibition in a number of natural history centers.

Unfortunately, there are now disputes about where he should be displayed as the last of his kind. So it could be quite difficult to go and see him.

3 The Last Baiji Dolphin

Baiji dolphins used to frolic in the Yangtze River system but were declared functionally extinct when nobody could find a single dolphin in its natural habitat in 2006. Luckily, in 2007, a Chinese man saw one by chance and took a video of him leaping on the surface of the river and generally not looking too worried about the whole extinction thing. Unfortunately, no other dolphins were seen with him, and scientists have recently stated that they think he’s the last of his kind.

Even if there are others, a small population wouldn’t be genetically viable to bring these dolphins back from extinction. So scientists aren’t willing to update the status of the dolphins unless we find enough to create and maintain a decent number of genetically diverse dolphins.

2 Solitary Escargot

Photo credit: Averell, William D

You never really think of snails as being lonely, but being the last of your kind in a tank in Bristol would probably make anybody a bit lonesome. After being hunted and killed by a species of cannibalistic snails, the tiny Polynesian gastropods were moved to Bristol for a new start. Hopefully, there will also be a bit of a boost in their numbers because they won’t be mercilessly pursued and eaten by their own kind.

The Partula faba — a species so weird that they don’t even get a non-Latin name — were extinct in the wild by the time that breeding was attempted in Bristol. Eventually, they all died except for one last snail, another endling with no name. Unfortunately, she died in February 2016 with no hope of continuing the odd species of air-breathing, tropical land snails.

1 Humans

That’s right. Even though humans have frequent communication on a day-to-day basis, loneliness is now thought of as the next public health issue. With approximately 30 percent of people over 80 saying that they’re lonely, the latest studies have shown that men whose wives died recently have a 25 percent higher chance of dying within a decade than other men.

Loneliness has an actual biological impact on people’s health, aging, and life span. Unlike George, Toughie, and Curiosity, we’re not the last of our species or alone on a desolate planet. But loneliness still affects a huge number of us.

The media blames a variety of things — Facebook, the fact that a quarter of us live alone, and the stigma of admitting to loneliness. But it looks to be the next epidemic, affecting people of all ages in all social structures.

Given that loneliness in humans increases the risk of death by over 25 percent, we need to decrease the number of people who feel lonely. At the moment, 10 percent of people in the UK “get lonely often” and 48 percent of people think that we’re still getting lonelier.

Valerie is a fiction writer and marketing copywriter in London, UK. She obsessively makes lists on her phone, and this is just an extension of that.

10 Common Plants You Didn’t Know Were Toxic

Throughout time, plants have provided us with many things: Food, shelter, warmth, fuel, medicine, clothes, textile, entertainment and a love of nature. With many of the species of plants around today, toxicity is an important aspect that must be addressed – especially when the toxicity involves a plant you are already quite familiar with. I am proud to present to you a list addressing some common plants that also have a hint or two of toxicity. A list of the 10 Common Plants You Didn’t Know Were Toxic.

10

Poinsettia

Euphorbia pulcherrima

Toxic Principle: Diterpene esters in latex

To start off, we have perhaps one of the most well-known ornamental plants, the poinsettia. Euphorbia pulcherrima is a plant native to the tropical, deciduous forests of Mexico, but has long been used as a symbol of Christmas. As you might have guessed, this is due to its distinctive red and green leaf combinations, although poinsettias can be cultivated to have a wide range of colors, from blue to pink.

It is a wide misconception that poinsettias are incredibly poisonous. This is not true. This, presumably, comes from the fact that most other plants in the Euphorbia genus are highly toxic. While ingestion can cause vomiting and diarrhea, exposure can cause temporary skin eczema AND contact with the eyes can cause temporary blindness, this is not always the case. POISINDEX, a major resource for poison control centers, says that it would take 500 brachts of the plant to cause poison to a 50 pound (22.68kg) child. Thus, our first entry on the list.

9

English Ivy

Hedera helix

Toxic Principles: Triterpenoid saponins and polyacetylene compounds

English Ivy is an extremely common plant, and is labeled as an invasive species in the United States. Its sale and distribution is even prohibited in the state of Oregon. This is due to its ability to create “ivy deserts” across landscapes. Hedera helix is even known to climb to the top of trees, causing them to topple. Though hard to control, it is often used by gardeners as an edge plant, or in the home as an intriguing house plant.

Young children are often victim to this plant’s poison, most likely due to its curious demeanor. Ingestion can cause delirium, stupor, convulsions, hallucinations and fever, and contact with its leaves can cause skin irritation, itching, rash and blisters. Kind of makes you wonder why it isn’t illegal where you are, doesn’t it?

8

Easter Lily

Lilium longiflorum

Toxic Principle: Lycorine alkaloids

Easter lilies are a very common species in the Liliaceae family. Although native to the Ryukyu Islands of Japan and Taiwan, this lily is found in gardens all across the globe. Growing up to one meter (3.28 ft) in height, and bearing a number of trumpet shaped, white, fragrant and outward facing flowers, it is a keepsake to the art of gardening.

Easter lilies, although beautiful, are also poisonous, especially to cats, at an extreme level. It is also poisonous to humans due to the alkaloid Lycorine, found in the bulbs and stems. Symptoms of poisoning due to ingestion of Easter lily (likewise for almost all other true lilies) include abdominal pain, salivation, shivering, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Wouldn’t we all love a bit of that around Easter time?

7

Larkspur

Delphinium spp.

Toxic Principles: Alkaloids delphinine, ajacine and others

Larkspur is a member of the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, and is native to North America. It usually grows at higher elevations, and is often found on mountains. From 10 centimeters (3.93″), and in some alpine species, up to two meters (6.56 ft) tall, this plant is topped with a raceme of many flowers, varying in color from purple and blue, to red, yellow or white. Almost all species are toxic. Despite its toxicity, Delphinium species are used as food plants by the larvae of some moth species.

All parts of the Larkspur are poisonous. Due to their height, cattle are frequently poisoned by ingesting them. Many ranchers will delay moving cattle onto such ranges until late summer, when toxicity rates are the lowest. Symptoms of poisoning include burning of the lips and mouth, numbness of throat, intense vomiting and diarrhea, muscular weakness and spasms, weak pules, paralysis of the respiratory system and convulsions, which usually leads to death. Although it is a genuinely attractive plant to look at, it is best left alone.

6

Aloe Vera

Aloe Vera

Toxic Principles: Aloin and anthraquinone-glycoside

Aloe Vera is a succulent plant, recognized for its long, spiny, flower spikes, and yellow flowers, in terminal, elongated clusters. It has been used for thousands of years to treat burns. In addition, it has also been used to treat heartburn, diabetes and irritable bowel syndrome. It is also common practice for cosmetic companies to add sap or other derivatives from aloe vera to products such as makeup, tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, shaving cream and shampoos. It is not widely known, however, that it is, in fact, poisonous. The gel, which is NOT poisonous, inside the leaves, is covered in a thin layer of Aloin and Anthraquinone c-glycoside, which are very toxic. If eaten in large enough quantities, it is known to cause abdominal cramping, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea and red urine, though not due to blood. Breaking a piece off to sooth irritated skin is generally considered safe, with the exception of those sensitive to latex.

5

Azalea

Rhododendron spp.

Toxic Principle: Andromedotoxin

Azaleas are a very common plant, found in gardens all over the world. Its evergreen leaves and brilliant flowers make it an exceptionally attractive plant for many gardeners. Its flowers are white to deep pink, red, yellow, purple, blue and orange.

Despite its popularity, an underwhelming common knowledge of its toxicity exists. All parts of the Rhododendron are highly toxic, and may be fatal if eaten. Symptoms from ingestion include over-salivation, watering of eyes and nose, abdominal pain, loss of energy, depression, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, difficulty breathing, progressive paralysis of arms and legs and coma, usually leading to death. How beautiful and attractive!

4

Dumb Cane

Dieffenbachia

Toxic Principles: Calcium oxalate crystals called raphides, oxalic acid

Dumb cane makes it to number four on our list due to its overwhelming popularity. Dieffenbachia is an extremely common house plant, and you’ve probably been to many homes where it resides. You might even have it in your house and not even know about its toxicity. Dieffenbachia contains oxalic acid, a sour acid which is also found in the tasty shamrock (oxalis). It also contains tiny needle shaped crystals called calcium oxalate. If a leaf is chewed, these crystals cause an extreme burning sensation in the mouth, throat and tongue. It is also known to cause temporary vocal cord paralysis, hence the name, ‘dumb cane’. While ingestion is not always fatal, victims describe it as excruciatingly painful and debilitating. In addition, other symptoms include excessive drooling, localized swelling, and difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea is also reported to occur. Think about that the next time you pass by this seemingly innocent-looking house plant!

3

Oleander

Nerium oleander

Toxic Principles: Cardiac glycosides: nerioside and oleandroside; saponins, and other unknown agents

Oleander is a small, yet eye-catching plant, and its flowers are known to come in a wide assortment of colors. One aspect (perhaps already well-known) of the plant is its high level of toxicity. A single leaf consumed by an infant or child is often fatal. It is even known to hold its toxicity after drying. The symptoms experienced from the ingestion of this plant are horrific and terrifying, placing it third on our list. These include nausea, stomach pain, dizziness, drowsiness, poor circulation to extremities, seizures, tremors, collapse, slowed pulse, irregular heartbeat, pupil dilation, bloody diarrhea, coma, death and suicidal depression. Yes…; you read that correctly. In Southern India, there are innumerable reported cases of suicide after consuming mashed oleander seeds. Think about that the next time you decide to throw a bit of oleander in your dumpling recipe!

2

Foxglove

Digitalis purpurea

Toxic Principles: Cardiac and steroid glycosides

Foxglove is a beautiful plant that is common in many colorful gardens. Its scientific name, digitalis, means “finger-life” and refers to the ease with which the flower can be fitted over a human fingertip. These flowers, produced along a tall spike, are known to come in colors such as blue, purple, pink, white and yellow. They also sometimes possess various markings and spots inside the flowers. Foxglove is number two on our list for its beautiful, yet sinister appearance, distribution, and unrivaled toxicity.

Initially praised for its medicinal effectiveness with treating heart conditions, epilepsy and other seizure disorders, many of its uses are now considered inappropriate, due to its wide variety of adverse reactions. The entire plant is toxic, though the leaves of the upper stem are particularly potent. Just a nibble has the potential of causing death. Early symptoms of ingestion include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, wild hallucinations, delirium and severe headache. Depending on the severity of toxicosis, a victim may later suffer irregular and slowed pulse, tremors, cerebral disturbances (especially of a visual nature, such as colors appearing yellowish to green, and blue halos around lights), convulsions and deadly disturbances of the heart. Sadly, death is often at the end of many experiments with foxglove.

1

Datura Stramonium

Toxic Principle: Tropane alkaloids: atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine

Finally, we have Datura Stramonium. This is a very common, and very attractive plant. It grows just about anywhere there is soil. It can sometimes lie dormant underground for years and suddenly germinate when the soil is disturbed. The plant is known for its trumpet-like flower, which is colored white to pink or purple, and its seed pod which is covered in many sharp thorns. A foul odor is secreted when any part of the plant is disturbed or broken. Draw your initial conclusions when you hear its many names – Devil’s trumpet, Devil’s weed, Devil’s cucumber, Hell’s Bells, locoweed, stinkweed, pricklyburr, thornapple, Jamestown weed, Jimson weed, tolguacha and Moonflower. It is a member of the deadly Nightshade family.

Datura was used as a mystical sacrament in North America by natives, and in South Asia, where Hindus believe Lord Shiva is often seen smoking Datura. It causes intense hallucinations and delirium. It’s unofficial name, Jamestown weed, comes from the town in Virginia, where British soldiers were drugged with it while attempting to suppress Bacon’s Rebellion. They spent eleven days appearing to have gone insane, as this suggests:

“The James-Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny Apple of Peru, and I take to be the plant so call’d) is supposed to be one of the greatest coolers in the world. This being an early plant, was gather’d very young for a boil’d salad, by some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the rebellion of Bacon (1676); and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days: one would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much fury; and another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey, grinning and making mows [grimaces] at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch droll.

In this frantic condition they were confined, lest they should, in their folly, destroy themselves – though it was observed that all their actions were full of innocence and good nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in their own excrements, if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple tricks they played, and after eleven days returned themselves again, not remembering anything that had passed.” – The History and Present State of Virginia, 1705

All parts of the Datura plant contains dangerous levels of poisonous alkaloids. It is often fatal when ingested by humans and animals, including livestock and pets. Datura intoxication typically produces a complete inability to differentiate reality from fantasy. Other symptoms reported include hyperthermia, tachycardia, bizarre and possibly violent behavior and severe mydriasis with resultant painful photophobia that can last for several days. Pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect. Because of the small window between dose and overdose, recreational use of datura stramonium is NOT advised. Overdose, more often than not, includes death.

20 Natural Wonders That Didn’t Make The Cut

We all grew up learning about the 7 Natural Wonders of the World, which, up until recently, consisted of The Grand Canyon, The Great Barrier Reef, Harbour of Rio de Janeiro, Mount Everest, Aurora Borealis, Paricutin Volcano and Victoria Falls. In 2001, however, a Swiss corporation called New7Wonders, in conjunction with UNESCO, started an initiative to choose new wonders, based on public voting. On 07/07/07, a brand new list of 7 man-made Wonders was released, after more than 100,000,000 votes from the public were cast. Later in the same year, the 7 New Wonders of Nature campaign was launched, and the Vote count took place on 11/11/11. The announcement was made, and now our new 7 Natural Wonders of the world consists of – The Amazon River, Halong bay, Iquazu Falls, Jeju Island, Komodo Island, Puerto Princesa Underground River and Table Mountain. In this list, I was less interested in looking at the 7 winning entries, as I am sure they will be spoken about for years to come, and more interested in looking at the entries that did not make it, as they might soon be forgotten. Of the 28 finalists for which the public voted, this list is all about 20 that did not make it onto the list. All the entries are listed in alphabetical order, as I cannot judge which is better.

1

Angel Falls

Venezuela, 5°58′03″N 62°32′08″W

At a height of 979m, Angel Falls is the world’s highest waterfall. Found in the Canaima National Park in Venezuela, which has been a UNESCO World heritage site since 1994. The waterfall drops over the edge of Mt Auyantepui and plummets into the Korep River almost a kilometer below. This spectacular waterfall was named after Jimmie Angel, who was the first U.S. pilot to fly over the falls. The falls makes for one of Venezuela’s most popular tourist attractions, even though reaching it proves to be rather difficult, as visitors will need to fly to the Canaima camp before trekking through the jungle and taking boats up the river. Trips to the falls can only be made during the rainy season when there is enough water to take the boats up river and get a glimpse of the magical waterfall.

2

Black Forest

Germany, 48°N 8°E

The Black Forest is found in South-Western Germany. It was named the Black Forest by Romans, because of the dense tree growth, which blocks out the sun almost completely. The forest consists mainly of firs and pines, which were needed for wood, and resulted in mass logging in 1999, obliterating acres of the forest and reducing its size to a fraction of what it was. It is also the only home of Lumbricus badensis, which is a species of giant earth worm. The Black Forest is also the home of many small towns and villages, from which black forest ham and black forest cake apparently originated.

3

Bu Tinah Islands

United Arab Emirates, 24°37′N, 53°05′E

Bu Tinah is found in the waters of Abu Dhabi and is protected as a private game reserve. It is a tiny cluster of islands, amongst extensive coral reefs and seaweed beds. It is recognized as a UNESCO marine biosphere reserve, and is off limits to visitors. The Islands brag of at least 16 species of coral and holds high significance for climate change research, as coral generally thrives in water with a temperature between 23°C and 28°C, but in this case, is thriving in water that can reach up to 35°C. The islands are also home to a wide range of wildlife, including the rare hawksbill turtles and dugongs.

4

Cliffs of Moher

Ireland, 52°56′10″N 9°28′15″W

The Cliffs of Moher are located in Ireland’s County Clare. They range from a height of 120 meters to 214 meters, and make a vertical plummet into the Atlantic Ocean. Over a million tourists visit the cliffs for the exceptional view that they provide. The cliffs are home to an array of animals, including 30,000 birds. Besides the wildlife and tourists, you might have seen the cliffs before, as they have been featured in a number of films, including Leap Year, Princess Bride, Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince and several episodes of Father Ted.

5

Dead Sea

Israel, Jordan, Palestine, 31°20′N 35°30E

The Dead Sea is a stretch of water about 67km long and 18km wide. It is a hyper saline lake and is 8.6 times saltier than the oceans, with a 33.7% salt saturation. The Dead Sea and its surrounding coastline is also the lowest elevation of the earth’s surface, at 423 meters below sea level, and is also the deepest hyper saline lake on earth, with a depth of 377m. The Dead Sea received its name as no marine life or animals can flourish or survive in the extreme conditions. The mud from the bottom of the Dead Sea is full of minerals and nutrients, which is used commonly in spas and resorts, as well as proving an effective treatment for eczema and psoriasis. The ultimate reason why tourists flock to the Dead Sea, however, is that the high density of the water (2.24kg/L) allows a person to float on the surface.

6

El Yunque

Puerto Rico, 18°19′00″N 65°47′00″W

El Yunque National Forest is found on the North Eastern side of Puerto Rico, and is the only tropical rainforest in the United States National Forest System. The rainforest is situated on the slopes of the Sierra de Luquillo Mountains and covers a 113.3km2 area. The forest has diverse flora and fauna, including up to 23 species of plants which are endemic to the area. Due to the forest’s location just below the tropic of cancer, it does not have specified seasons and generally has year-round rains, which can amount to over 6m or 240 inches of rainfall per year.

7

Galapagos

Ecuador, 00°30′S 91°04′W

The Galapagos Islands are a series of small volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean. They are about 972km west of Ecuador, and form an Ecuadorian national park and biological marine reserve. There are 18 main islands in this relatively new geological formation, and they are renowned for their diverse wildlife and connections to Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, as he had also visited the Islands and based a large portion of his research on discoveries made there. In 1957, 97.5% of the Galapagos was declared a national park and, in 1986, 70,000km2 of ocean surrounding the Islands were declared a marine reserve. By 2001, both the national park and the marine reserve had been declared a world heritage site by UNESCO.

8

Grand Canyon

USA, 36°03′19″N 112°07′19″W

The Grand Canyon is located in Arizona, USA. It is believed that the Colorado River first cut its path through the would-be canyon, 17 million years ago, and has since been eroding it down to its current state. The Canyon is 446km long, up to 29km wide and about 1.8km deep. Through the years of erosion, almost 2 billion years of the Earth’s history has been exposed in the rock layers. The first evidence of human activity in the canyon is up to 3000 years old. The Pueblo Native Americans have inhabited the Grand Canyon for centuries, and some still reside there. The Canyons are also one of the world’s top tourist attractions, and draw about 5 million people to it every year. The Grand Canyon was a prominent feature on the previous list of 7 natural wonders, but has failed to make the cut this time around.

9

The Great Barrier Reef

Australia, Papua New Guinea, 18°34′4″S 148°33′19″E

The Great Barrier Reef is another wonder, from the previous 7 natural wonders list, that did not make it onto the new list. It is the largest reef system in the world and covers 344,400km2, with almost 3000 reefs and 900 islands. The reef is a protected world heritage site and one of the most thriving and diverse ecological sites in the world. The Great Barrier Reef is also the largest structure built by living organisms in the world, and can be seen from space. This magnificent reef is also home to over 30 species of whale, dolphin and porpoise, 6 species of sea turtle and a whopping 1500 species of fish.

10

Jeita Grotto

Lebanon, 33°56’35″N 35°38’36″E

The Jeita Grotto is two large interconnected cave systems that span for over 9km. The astounding caves are located just 18km from the Lebanese capital, Beirut. The two systems form the lower cave, which is only accessible by boat through an underground river system, which also happens to provide more than a million people with fresh drinking water, and the upper cave which forms large chambers and contain the world’s largest stalactite. A multitude of evidence has been found to suggest the caves being used as shelter by humans for thousands of years, long before their rediscovery, in 1836. Evidence found in the caves suggest human presence, in the form of pot shards, spear heads and bone shards, from the Late Palaeolithic/early stone age, the Neolithic/late stone age and the Chalcolithic/copper age/transitional bronze age.

11

Mt Kilimanjaro

Tanzania, 3°4′33″S 37°21′12″E

Mt Kilimanjaro is the tallest mountain in Africa, and is located in the Kilimanjaro National park, in Tanzania. It is, in fact, a volcano with three distinct cones called Kibo, Mawenzi and Shira – Kibo being the largest of the three and also having the mountains highest summit. Even though the huge volcano is located close to the equator, has lush tropical and sub-tropical forests, savannahs and grasslands surrounding it, and receives up to 2000mm of rainfall per year, it is still capped with snow year round, due to its enormous height of 5895m. After running tests on snow samples from the summit, it was determined that the base snow is over 11,000 years old. A major decrease in the amount of snow that caps Kilimanjaro has been witnessed since 1912, it now carries an 80% lighter load than then, and is expected to be snow free by 2030. The two smaller volcanic cones are extinct, but Kibo, the largest, is only dormant and could erupt again in the future.

12

Islands of Maldives

Maldives, 3 15 N, 73 00 E

The Maldives, or the Republic of the Maldives, is a series of 26 natural Atolls (coral islands that surround a lagoon completely or partially) situated in the Indian Ocean, about 400km south-west of India. Each atoll consists of smaller islands and coral reefs, and the Maldives’ 26 atolls form about 1130 smaller islands, of which only about 200 are inhabited. The Maldives are renowned for their diverse variety of colorful corals, and are home to over 300 species of tropical fish. Seven new species of fish have been discovered fairly recently in the Maldives. Sadly, in 1998 the increase in water temperature brought on by El Niño, killed two thirds of the entire coral population, but by 2004 methods using electrified, coral larva attracting cones that speed up coral growth was discovered and the reefs are being rehabilitated.

13

Masurian Lake District

Poland, 53°46′N 21°45′E

The Masurian Lake District is found to the north-east of Poland. It has over 2000 lakes, spread across 52,000km2. Most of the lakes are interconnected by rivers forming a large, extensive system of waterways. The entire district was shaped by the Pleistocene Ice Age and is now a very popular tourist destination, which offers fantastic boating opportunities, angling, cycling, hiking and canoeing, perfect for any nature lover. The entire area boasts 11 nature reserves with a wide variety of wild life. The area has a temperate climate with warm summers and cold winters, during which time the lakes freeze over.

14

The Matterhorn

Italy, Switzerland, 45°58′35″N 7°39′30″E

The Matterhorn is a mountain in the Pennine Alps, on the border between Italy and Switzerland. The mountain forms one of the highest peaks in the Alps, and it has four very steep sides, pointing in the directions of a compass, forming a pyramid at the summit. The Gargantuan Mountain towers over Zermatt village on the Swiss side, and over Breuil Cervinia on the Italian side. The Matterhorn has inspired fear in climbers for years, and was one of the last alpine mountains to be conquered. It was first ascended in July 1865, by seven climbers from the Swiss side, however two of the climbers plummeted to their deaths on the descent. Only three days later, the mountain was climbed again, by Jean-Antoine Carrel and Jean Baptiste Bich, who became the first to reach the summit from the Italian side.

15

Milford Sound

New Zealand, 44°40′30″S 167°55′46″E

Milford Sound is a fjord/fiord (a long narrow inlet with steep sides) found on the south-west side of New Zealand’s Southern Island. It is also a marine reserve, a world heritage site and one of the most popular tourist destinations in New Zealand. Milford Sound runs for 15km inland from Dale Point and is completely surrounded by high, steep rock faces and cliffs. Many of the cliffs and peaks surrounding the fiord have been named according to their appearance, for instance, The Elephant reaches 1517m in height and resembles an elephants head. Milford Sound is also the wettest inhabited area in New Zealand, causing lush forests to blanket the cliffs. The waters below are teeming with dolphins, penguins and seals with the occasional whale rearing its head, as well. There are two magnificent permanent waterfalls gushing down the cliffs, but when it rains, hundreds of temporary waterfalls form.

16

Mud Volcanoes

Azerbaijan, 40°06′20″N 49°23′20″E

Mud Volcanoes are basically formed when underground mud deposits are forced to the surface, expelling gasses and muddy liquid mixtures. Of the 700 known mud volcanoes around the world, over 400 can be found in Azerbaijan, along the countries Caspian coastline. All the mud volcanoes are fed by a giant underground mud lake. 86% of all the gas released by the pits is methane, which caused quite a stir in 2001, when one of the pits started spewing fire up to 15m into the air. It is estimated that every mud volcano should have at least one large eruption every 20 years, and for the rest of the time they create nutritional mud baths, to which tourists flock.

17

Sandarbans

Bangladesh, India, 11°00′N 122°40′E

The Sundarbans form the largest saline mangroves in the world, and the name translates to “beautiful jungle” or “beautiful forest.” The mangrove is formed by three convoluted rivers, called Padma, Brahmaputra and Meghna. The Sundarbans cover about 10,000km2, collectively, with fresh water forests found more inland & saline tolerant mangroves closer to the coast. Thanks to the complicated, interconnected waterways, almost all parts of the mangrove is accessible by boat. The mangrove is home to crocodiles, deer, snakes, hundreds of varieties of birds and several endangered species, such as Bengal tigers, Ganges river dolphins, olive ridley turtles, hawksbill sea turtle and even the critically endangered Javan rhinoceros.

18

Uluru

Australia, 25°20′42″S 131°02′10″E

Uluru is the name given to a huge sandstone rock formation, slightly south of central Australia. Uluru is a sacred site for the Aboriginal Australians, whose ancient rock art can be found in a variety of caves found in the sandstone mound. Uluru stands 348 meters above the ground, and has a circumference of 9.4 km, but the larger portion is buried beneath the ground. It is believed that Uluru is a small remnant of large mountain ranges that use to stand in the area. It also boasts several streams, springs and water holes, is a popular tourist attraction and takes about one hour to climb.

19

Vesuvius

Italy, 40°49′N 14°26′E

Mt. Vesuvius is a well-known volcano in Italy, about 9km away from Naples. It is a large mountain that has only one cone, which is surrounded by the rim of a caldera that collapsed into the much larger original mountain, called Monta Somma. Mt. Vesuvius has erupted about 30 times in the last 2000 years, with the most notable eruption occurring in 79 AD, which is the eruption that famously swallowed Pompeii, a town near Naples, burying it beneath 4-6m of ash and pumice. After the town’s rediscovery and excavation in 1794, it has become a very popular tourist attraction and is considered a world heritage site. Vesuvius’ last eruption was in 1944, but none of the eruptions following 79AD has been quite as destructive. Today, the area around the mountain is considered a national park and millions of tourists flock up the mountain every year to look into the crater.

20

Yushan

Taiwan, 23°28′12″N 120°57′26.16″E

Yushan, or Jade Mountain, is the highest point of the Yushan mountain range and also the highest mountain in South East Asia. The summit of the mountain stands 3952 meters above sea level and continues about 4000m below sea level, to the ocean floor. During the winter, the mountain is covered in frost, looking much like smooth uncut jade, hence the name. During the summer, lush conifers cover the base of the mountain. Because the area has a high climate range, there are about 140 species of bird, 28 species of mammal, 17 species of reptile, and over 186 kinds of butterflies living on the mountain and the surrounding Yushan national park.

10 Unique And Amazing Places on Earth

After seeing “10 More Amazing Wonders of the Natural World”, which many contained places I had never even heard of, I was inspired to make my own list. This list differs from the previous in that it contains things which may not be stunning to behold, but are unique for their size, location, or natural impact.

10

The Door To Hell

Turkmenistan

The Door to Hell, as local residents at the nearby town of Darvaza have dubbed it, is a 70 meter wide crater in Turkmenistan that has been burning continuously for 35 years. In 1971, geologists drilling for gas deposits uncovered a huge underground cavern, which caused the ground over it to collapse, taking down all their equipment and their camp with it. Since the cavern was filled poisonous gas, they dared not go down to retrieve their equipment, and to prevent the gas escaping they ignited it, hoping it would burn itself out in a couple of days. Unfortunately, there was a slight miscalculation as to the amount of gas that was trapped, and the crater continues to burn to this day.

You can see it on Google Earth at 40°15?8?N 58°26?23?E

9

Mount Roraima

Venezuela, Brazil and Guyana

Mount Roraima is a pretty remarkable place. It is a tabletop mountain with sheer 400-metre high cliffs on all sides. There is only one ‘easy’ way up, on a natural staircase-like ramp on the Venezuelan side – to get up any other way takes and experienced rock climber. On the top of the mountain it rains almost every day, washing away most of the nutrients for plants to grow and creating a unique landscape on the bare sandstone surface. This also creates some of the highest waterfalls in the world over the sides (Angel falls is located on a similar tabletop mountain some 130 miles away). Though there are only a few marshes on the mountain where vegetation can grow properly, these contain many species unique to the mountain, including a species of carnivorous pitcher plant.

8

Meteor Crater

USA

Meteor Crater is a meteorite impact crater located approximately 43 miles (69 km) east of Flagstaff, near Winslow in the northern Arizona desert of the United States. Because the US Department of the Interior Division of Names commonly recognizes names of natural features derived from the nearest post office, the feature acquired the name of “Meteor Crater” from the nearby post office named Meteor. The crater was created about 50,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch when the local climate on the Colorado Plateau was much cooler and damper. At the time, the area was an open grassland dotted with woodlands inhabited by woolly mammoths, giant ground sloths, and camels. It was probably not inhabited by humans; the earliest confirmed record of human habitation in the Americas dates from long after this impact. The object that excavated the crater was a nickel-iron meteorite about 50 meters (54 yards) across, which impacted the plain at a speed of several kilometers per second.

7

The Great Dune of Pyla

France

Since Europe has no deserts, you’d think the title of “Europe’s largest sand dune” would go to something that wasn’t particularly impressive. But you’d be wrong. The Great Dune of Pyla is 3km long, 500m wide and 100m high, and for reasons I will probably never understand, it seems to have formed in a forest. The dune is very steep on the side facing the forest and is famous for being a paragliding site. At the top it also provides spectacular views out to sea and over the forest (since the dune is far higher than any of the trees surrounding it).

6

Socotra

Republic of Yemen

Socotra has been described as one of the most alien-looking place on Earth, and it’s not hard to see why. It is very isolated with a harsh, dry climate and as a result a third of its plant-life is found nowhere else, including the famous Dragon’s Blood Tree, a very-unnatural looking umbrella-shaped tree which produces red sap. There are also a large number of birds, spiders and other animals native to the island, and coral reefs around it which similarly have a large number of endemic (i.e. only found there) species. Socotra is considered the most biodiverse place in the Arabian sea, and is a World Heritage Site.

5

83-42

Greenland

This is more of a curiosity and not visually impressive, but 83-42 is believed to be the northernmost permanent point of land on earth. It is tiny, only 35m by 15m and 4m high, but is about 400 miles from the north pole. It beat the previous record holder, ATOW1996, when it was discovered in 1998, and lichens were found growing on it, suggesting it was not just one of the temporary gravel bars that are found in that region, which are regularly pushed around by the rough seas. The picture above features what is currently the northernmost point on land, one of the temporary gravel bars, photographed in 2007, as I could find no photos of 83-42 (For some reason, nobody feels the need to produce a photograph of a tiny rock in the middle of nowhere, which only five people have ever stepped foot on).

4

Rotorua

New Zealand

Rotorua is a city on the southern shores of the lake of the same name, in the Bay of Plenty region of the North Island of New Zealand. The city is known for its geothermal activity, with a number of geysers, notably the Pohutu Geyser at Whakarewarewa, and boiling mud pools (pictured above) located in the city. This thermal activity owes itself to the Rotorua caldera on which the city lies. Rotorua is also a top adventure destination and is New Zealand’s Maori cultural heartland. Rotorua city is renowned for its unique “rotten eggs” aroma, which is caused by the geothermal activity releasing sulphur compounds into the atmosphere. If you are ever visiting New Zealand – this is a city you must see. It was once home to the famed Pink and White Terraces and you can visit thermal wonderlands with sights that are truly astounding.

3

Don Juan Pond

Antarctica

With a salinity of over 40%, Don Juan Pond is the saltiest body of water in the world. It is named after the two pilots who first investigated the pond in 1961, Lt Don Roe and Lt John Hickey. It is a small lake, only 100m by 300m, and on average 0.1m deep, but it is so salty that even in the Antarctic, where the temperature at the pond regularly drops to as low as -30 degrees Celsius, it never freezes. It is 18 times saltier than sea water, compared to the Dead Sea which is only 8 times saltier than sea water.

2

Iceberg B-15

Antarctica

Iceberg B-15 was the largest ever recorded iceberg. It had an area of 3,100 km², making it larger than the island of Jamaica, and was created when part of the Ross Ice Shelf broke off in March 2000. In 2003, it broke apart, and one of the larger pieces (called B-15a) drifted north, eventually smashing into a glacier in 2005, breaking off an 8-km² section and forcing many antarctic maps to be rewritten. It drifted along the coast and eventually ran aground, breaking up once again. In 2006, a storm in Alaska (that’s right, Alaska) caused an ocean swell that travelled 13,500km, over 6 days, to Antarctica and broke up the largest remaining part even more. Almost a decade on, parts of the iceberg have still not melted, with the largest remaining part, still called B-15a, having an area of 1,700 km². The picture above shows B-15a (top left) in 2005, after drifting west into the Drygalski Glacier (bottom), breaking the end off into several pieces.

1

Guaíra Falls

Brazil-Paraguay border

Located on the Parana river the Guaíra Falls were, in terms of total volume, the largest waterfall on earth. 1,750,000 cubic feet of water fell over this waterfall each second on average, compared to just 70,000 cubic feet per second for Niagra Falls. However, the falls were flooded in 1982 when a dam was created to take advantage of this massive flow rate. The Itaipu Dam is now the second most powerful hydroelectric dam in the world, after the Three Gorges Dam. The Itaipu Dam supplies 90% of the power consumed by Paraguay, and 19% of the power consumed by Brazil, including Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.

Listverse Staff

Listverse is a place for explorers. Together we seek out the most fascinating and rare gems of human knowledge. Three or more fact-packed lists daily.

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